The Continental Congress: Forging a Nation in the Crucible of Revolution

Origins and Context

Escalating Tensions with Britain

The Continental Congress emerged in response to growing tensions between the Thirteen Colonies and Great Britain in the 1770s.

The British Parliament's passage of the Intolerable Acts in 1774, a punitive response to the Boston Tea Party (1773), galvanized colonial opposition.

These acts, which included the closure of the port of Boston and restrictions on colonial self-governance, were seen as an assault on colonial rights and liberties.

Colonial leaders recognized the need for a unified response.

The colonies had a long tradition of local governance through colonial assemblies, but intercolonial cooperation was limited.

The First Continental Congress was convened to address these grievances and assert colonial rights while attempting to repair the fraying relationship with Britain.

The Delegates:

Experienced Leaders

The delegates to the Continental Congress were seasoned leaders with extensive experience in colonial governance.

According to historian Jack P. Greene, the delegates had "a cumulative total of nearly 500 years of experience in their Colonial assemblies, and fully a dozen of them had served as speakers of the houses of their legislatures."

This expertise enabled the Congress to navigate complex political and military challenges during a period of unprecedented upheaval.

The First Continental Congress (1774)

Convening in Philadelphia

The First Continental Congress convened on September 5, 1774, at Carpenters' Hall in Philadelphia, with 56 delegates representing 12 of the Thirteen Colonies (Georgia did not attend).

The Congress met for approximately six weeks, from September 5 to October 26, 1774, with the primary goal of addressing colonial grievances and restoring harmony with Britain.

Key Actions

1. Assertion of Colonial Rights: The Congress adopted a Declaration and Resolves, asserting the colonies' rights to "life, liberty, and property" and condemning the Intolerable Acts as violations of these rights.

2. Continental Association: The Congress established the Continental Association, a unified trade embargo against Britain. This agreement called for non-importation, non-exportation, and non-consumption of British goods, aiming to pressure the British economy and force the repeal of the Intolerable Acts.

3. Plan for a Second Congress: Recognizing the need for ongoing coordination, the Congress agreed to reconvene in May 1775 if grievances remained unresolved.

Outcomes and Limitations

The First Continental Congress succeeded in building consensus among the colonies and laying the groundwork for unified action.

However, its efforts to repair relations with Britain were unsuccessful.

King George III and the British Parliament viewed the Congress as an illegal assembly, and tensions continued to escalate.

The Second Continental Congress (1775–1781)

Convening Amid War

The Second Continental Congress convened on May 10, 1775, at the Pennsylvania State House (now Independence Hall) in Philadelphia, shortly after the Battles of Lexington and Concord (April 19, 1775) marked the outbreak of hostilities.

With 56 delegates from all Thirteen Colonies, the Congress faced the immediate challenge of managing a war against Britain.

Key Actions

1. Olive Branch Petition: In July 1775, the Congress sent the Olive Branch Petition to King George III, seeking reconciliation and a peaceful resolution to the conflict. The king rejected the petition and issued the Proclamation of Rebellion in August 1775, declaring the colonies in open rebellion.

2. Creation of the Continental Army: On June 14, 1775, the Congress established the Continental Army to coordinate colonial military efforts. George Washington was unanimously elected as Commander-in-Chief on June 15, 1775, tasked with leading the army against British forces.

3. Path to Independence: Following the king's rejection and the intensification of fighting, some delegates, including John Adams and Richard Henry Lee, began advocating for independence. On June 7, 1776, Lee introduced a resolution declaring the colonies "free and independent states." After weeks of debate, the Congress adopted the Lee Resolution on July 2, 1776, and approved the Declaration of Independence, drafted by Thomas Jefferson, on July 4, 1776.

Role as Provisional Government

The Second Continental Congress served as the de facto national government during most of the Revolutionary War.

It managed military operations, secured foreign alliances (notably with France in 1778), and addressed logistical and financial challenges.

However, its authority was limited by the lack of a formal constitution, and it relied on the voluntary cooperation of the states.

Challenges and Relocations

The Congress faced significant challenges, including British military advances and internal divisions.

In September 1777, following the British capture of Philadelphia, the Congress relocated to Lancaster and later York, Pennsylvania.

It returned to Philadelphia in July 1778 after the British evacuation but was forced to move again during the war due to security concerns.

The Congress of the Confederation (1781–1789)

Transition to the Articles of Confederation

On March 1, 1781, the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, the nation's first Frame of Government, came into force after ratification by all 13 states.

The Second Continental Congress transitioned into the Congress of the Confederation, a unicameral governing body with limited powers.

Key Functions and Limitations

• Foreign Relations: The Congress negotiated the Treaty of Paris (1783), which formally ended the Revolutionary War and recognized U.S. independence.

• Western Expansion: Congress passed the Northwest Ordinance (1787), establishing a framework for governing and admitting new states from the Northwest Territory.

• Weaknesses: The Articles of Confederation granted the Congress limited authority, lacking the power to tax, regulate commerce, or enforce laws. These weaknesses led to financial instability, interstate disputes, and challenges in maintaining national unity.

Relocations and Legacy

The Congress of the Confederation initially convened in Philadelphia but moved to Princeton, New Jersey, in 1783, and later to Annapolis, Maryland, and Trenton, New Jersey.

In 1785, New York City became the temporary U.S. capital, where the Congress met until 1789.

The Congress adjourned on March 4, 1789, when the 1st United States Congress under the new U.S. Constitution took over as the nation's legislative branch.

Historical Records and Insights

The Journals of the Continental Congress

Much of what is known about the daily activities of the Continental Congress comes from the journals kept by Charles Thomson, the secretary for all three congresses.

Printed contemporaneously, the Journals of the Continental Congress contain official congressional papers, letters, treaties, reports, and records.

These documents provide invaluable insights into the deliberations, decisions, and challenges faced by the Congress.

Truth-Seeking Perspective

The Continental Congress was a remarkable experiment in intercolonial cooperation and governance, but it was not without flaws.

Its reliance on voluntary state cooperation, limited authority, and frequent relocations highlight the challenges of governing during wartime.

The transition from the Articles of Confederation to the U.S.

Constitution reflects the Congress's recognition of the need for a stronger federal government.

Historians continue to debate the Congress's effectiveness, but its role in declaring independence and guiding the nation through war remains undeniable.

Legacy and Impact

The Continental Congress laid the foundation for American independence and governance.

Its achievements—declaring independence, creating the Continental Army, and securing foreign alliances—were instrumental in defeating Britain.

The Congress's weaknesses, particularly under the Articles of Confederation, underscored the need for a more robust federal system, leading to the adoption of the U.S. Constitution in 1789.

Today, the Continental Congress is remembered as a symbol of unity and resilience, with Independence Hall in Philadelphia serving as a testament to its historic role.

Its legacy endures in the principles of self-governance, federalism, and national sovereignty that continue to shape the United States.

Conclusion

The Continental Congress was a pivotal institution in the birth of the United States, guiding the colonies through resistance, war, and independence.

From the First Continental Congress's efforts to assert colonial rights to the Second Continental Congress's declaration of independence and the Congress of the Confederation's struggles under the Articles, this body navigated unprecedented challenges with remarkable determination.

While its limitations were evident, its contributions to American history are profound, making it a cornerstone of the nation's founding story.

America's Continental Congress